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Chapter 5 Understanding Marginalisation
Equality is a core value and right embedded in the Indian Constitution. Over time, the understanding of equality has deepened, moving beyond formal equality (treating everyone the same) to **substantive equality** (addressing systemic disadvantages). Inequality significantly impacts access to resources, as seen in historical struggles by women for education.
This chapter specifically examines how inequality affects different groups by introducing the concept of **marginalisation**, which means being excluded from the mainstream of society. It focuses on the experiences of three distinct groups in India: Adivasis, Muslims, and Dalits. While the reasons for marginalisation and the ways it is experienced can differ between these groups, they share the experience of being pushed to the fringes of society.
What Does It Mean To Be Socially Marginalised?
To be **marginalised** means being pushed to the **sides or fringes** of society, rather than being at its center. It's an experience of exclusion.
This feeling of being 'not with it' or unacceptable can be experienced even in small settings like a classroom or playground if someone differs from the majority in tastes, accent, social habits, sports preferences, or dress. What they say, feel, or how they act might be perceived as not quite right.
In broader social environments, entire **groups of people or communities** can experience this form of exclusion. Reasons for their marginalisation can include:
- Speaking a **different language**.
- Following **different customs**.
- Belonging to a **different religious group** from the majority.
Additionally, groups may feel marginalised due to **poverty**, being considered of **'low' social status**, and being viewed as less human than others. Sometimes, marginalised groups are met with **hostility and fear** from the dominant population.
This sense of difference and exclusion leads to communities having **limited access to resources and opportunities** and difficulty in asserting their rights. They experience a feeling of **disadvantage and powerlessness** when compared to more powerful and dominant sections of society who often control land, wealth, education, and political influence. Marginalisation is rarely limited to a single area; **economic, social, cultural, and political factors often interact** to make certain groups feel marginalised.
This chapter focuses on two communities in India – Adivasis and Muslims – to illustrate the concept of social marginalisation.
Adivasis And Marginalisation
The experience of Adivasis provides a clear example of marginalisation in India, often linked to their historical connection with forests and their distinct cultures.
This storyboard depicts an Adivasi family in Delhi watching the Republic Day parade. The children comment on the stereotypical portrayal of Adivasis as only dancing, prompting the grandfather to share their family's story of displacement from their village in Odisha due to forest officials, contractors, and mining companies taking over their land. He describes losing their traditional way of life, struggling in the city, and facing language barriers and mockery at school, highlighting the multi-faceted experience of marginalisation beyond just cultural representation.
Who Are Adivasis?
**Adivasis** literally means 'original inhabitants'. They are communities who have historically lived in close connection with **forests**. Approximately 8% of India's population is Adivasi. Many significant mining and industrial hubs in India, such as Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro, and Bhilai, are located in Adivasi-inhabited areas.
Adivasis are not a single homogeneous group; there are over 500 different Adivasi communities across India. They are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and the North-Eastern states. Odisha alone is home to more than 60 tribal groups.
A distinctive characteristic of Adivasi societies is often the presence of **very little hierarchy**, making them fundamentally different from caste-based societies or those structured under kingship. They practice diverse belief systems, often distinct from mainstream religions, involving the worship of ancestors, village spirits, and nature spirits residing in elements like mountains, rivers, and animals.
Historically, Adivasi religions have both been influenced by surrounding faiths (Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Bhakti, Christianity) and, in turn, have influenced dominant religions (e.g., the Jagannath cult in Odisha, Shakti and Tantric traditions). A significant number of Adivasis converted to Christianity during the 19th century, making it an important religion in modern Adivasi history.
Adivasis possess their own unique languages, many of which are as old as or older than Sanskrit and have influenced mainstream Indian languages like Bengali. **Santhali** is an Adivasi language with the largest number of speakers and a notable body of publications.
The term **Scheduled Tribes** is the official designation used by the Indian government for Adivasis in official documents, often grouped with Scheduled Castes.
Adivasis And Stereotyping
In India, Adivasi communities are often portrayed in limited and **stereotypical** ways, such as being shown exclusively in colourful costumes, headgear, and through dancing at official events or in media. This narrow representation contributes to the public perception of Adivasis as **exotic, primitive, and backward**.
This stereotyping can lead to the misconception that Adivasis are resistant to change or new ideas and are therefore responsible for their lack of advancement. As previously discussed in Class VI, stereotyping communities can result in **discrimination** against them.
These two images of tribal communities in traditional dress exemplify the common stereotypical representation of Adivasis, often reducing their complex identity to colourful costumes and traditional performances, contributing to the perception of them as exotic or backward rather than diverse communities with varied modern lives.
Adivasis And Development
Historically, **forests were vital** for the development of empires and settled civilisations in India, providing resources like metal ores (iron, copper, gold, silver), timber, medicinal plants, animal products, and animals themselves. Forests also played a crucial ecological role, supporting rivers and ensuring air and water quality. Until the 19th century, forests covered a large part of India, and Adivasis possessed deep knowledge of and considerable control over these areas, maintaining their independence from large states.
This historical reality contrasts sharply with the present image of Adivasis as marginal communities. For the past 200 years, Adivasis have been increasingly forced to **migrate and work as labourers** in plantations, construction, industries, and as domestic workers. This displacement has been driven by economic changes, forest policies, and the forceful acquisition of their lands by the state and private industry.
Since the 1830s, large numbers of Adivasis migrated from Jharkhand and surrounding areas to plantations within India (like Assam's tea gardens) and globally (Mauritius, Caribbean, Australia). The development of India's tea industry relied heavily on their labour. The migration was marked by extreme hardship, torture, and high death rates.
Source: A song titled "Come Mini, let's go to Assam" captures the plight of Adivasi migrants to Assam's tea gardens. It contrasts the initial hopes of escaping suffering in their homeland with the harsh reality of forced labour, abuse by overseers ('Sardar', 'Babu', 'Saheb'), and betrayal, expressing deep sorrow and the loss of their former lives.
The primary drivers of Adivasi displacement are:
- **Clearing Forest Lands:** Forests are cleared for timber, agriculture (by non-tribal populations), and industrial use.
- **Resource Extraction:** Adivasi lands are often rich in minerals and natural resources, leading to forceful takeover for mining and large industrial projects. Official figures indicate that a high percentage of people displaced by mining projects are tribals.
- **Dams and Infrastructure:** Huge areas of tribal lands have been submerged by dams built after independence.
- **Protected Areas:** The creation of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (covering significant areas) often leads to the eviction of tribal populations who traditionally lived in these forests, who are then sometimes labelled as 'encroachers' if they remain.
- **Militarisation:** In the North-East, tribal lands face issues related to heavy military presence.
**Losing land and access to forests** means Adivasis lose their main sources of livelihood, food, and deep traditional knowledge systems related to plant species and forest use. Displaced Adivasis often migrate to cities for low-wage jobs in local industries or construction, becoming trapped in a cycle of **poverty and deprivation**. This leads to poor health (many children are malnourished) and low literacy rates among tribal groups.
Source: The photo of Niyamgiri Hill in Odisha highlights a contemporary struggle where the Dongarria Kond Adivasi community is resisting displacement by an aluminium company planning mining and refinery projects on their sacred mountain. Environmentalists have joined their resistance, and the case is in court, illustrating ongoing conflicts over resource extraction on tribal lands.
Displacement results in losing not just income but also **traditions, customs, and an entire way of living and being**. This process of dispossession is often painful and violent, disrupting the interconnected economic and social dimensions of tribal life.
Reasons for Adivasi marginalisation:
- **Loss of Land and Access to Forests:** Displacement due to resource extraction, development projects, and forest policies.
- **Poverty and Lack of Opportunities:** Forced migration to cities for low-wage labour, leading to economic deprivation.
- **Stereotyping and Discrimination:** Being viewed as primitive or backward, leading to social exclusion and prejudice.
The grandfather in the storyboard was forced to leave his village because forest officials, contractors, and later a company wanting to mine iron ore, took over their land, eventually resorting to beating and threatening the villagers until they were forced to sell and abandon their ancestral land.
It is important for Adivasis to have a say in how their forests and lands are used because these areas are not just economic resources but also deeply connected to their culture, identity, livelihood, and historical rights as original inhabitants. Excluding them from decisions about their traditional territories undermines their rights and can lead to the destruction of their way of life and environment.
Minorities And Marginalisation
Unit 1 discussed that the Indian Constitution provides **safeguards for religious and linguistic minorities** as part of Fundamental Rights. These safeguards are essential because the influence of the majority's culture can dominate society and government expression. In such situations, being numerically small can be a disadvantage, leading to the marginalisation of smaller communities.
The term **minority** most commonly refers to communities that are **numerically small** relative to the rest of the population. However, the concept goes beyond just numbers, encompassing issues of **power, access to resources, and social/cultural dimensions**. Safeguards are crucial to protect minority communities from:
- Being **culturally dominated** by the majority.
- Facing **discrimination and disadvantage** due to their identity.
Communities small in number may feel insecure about their lives and assets, particularly if relations with the majority are strained. The Constitution provides these safeguards as part of its commitment to preserving India's **cultural diversity**, promoting **equality**, and ensuring **justice** for all. The judiciary plays a key role in upholding the law and enforcing these Fundamental Rights, and citizens can approach the courts if they believe their rights have been violated.
Muslims And Marginalisation
According to the 2011 Census, Muslims constitute 14.2% of India's population. They are considered a marginalised community due to their **comparatively lower status in socio-economic development** compared to other communities.
Data from various sources indicates the socio-economic situation of the Muslim community:
Format 2 (Horizontal)
| Religious Community | Hindu | Muslim | Christian | Sikh |
| Pucca House | 65.4 | 63.8 | 69.3 | 91.3 |
| Electricity | 75.2 | 67.5 | 86.2 | 96.0 |
| Tap Water | 43.7 | 35.8 | 48.0 | 49.3 |
This table shows that Sikhs have the highest access to basic amenities like pucca houses, electricity, and tap water, while Muslims generally have the lowest access among the listed communities (slightly lower than Hindus in pucca houses and electricity, significantly lower in tap water access).
Format 2 (Horizontal)
| Religious Community | All | Hindus | Muslims | Christians | Sikhs | Buddhists | Jains |
| Literacy Rate | 74 | 63 | 57 | 74 | 67 | 71 | 86 |
Based on this table, Jains have the highest literacy rate (86%), while Muslims have the lowest literacy rate (57%) among the listed communities.
Format 2 (Horizontal)
| Category | Population | IAS | IPS | IFS | Central Public Sector Unit (PSU) | State PSU | Banks & RBI |
| Percentage | 13.5 | 3 | 4 | 1.8 | 3.3 | 10.8 | 2.2 |
These figures convey that Muslims, who are 13.5% of the population, have significantly lower representation in various categories of public employment (IAS, IPS, IFS, Central PSU, Banks & RBI) compared to their population share. Representation is particularly low in central services (IAS, IPS, IFS, Central PSU, Banks & RBI).
In 2005, the government appointed the **Justice Rajindar Sachar Committee** to study the social, economic, and educational status of Muslims in India. The Sachar Committee Report detailed the community's marginalisation, concluding that their situation on many development indicators was comparable to that of other marginalised groups like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The report highlighted issues like lower average years of schooling for Muslim children (e.g., 25% of Muslim children aged 6-14 have never enrolled or dropped out, a higher percentage than other groups).
The marginalisation of Muslims is also rooted in social and cultural factors. Distinct customs and practices (like wearing a burqa, long beard, fez) can lead to Muslims being identified differently and sometimes viewed with suspicion or perceived as not being part of the 'mainstream'. This social difference can become an excuse for differential treatment and discrimination. This social marginalisation has, in some cases, led to **ghettoisation**, where Muslims migrate to areas predominantly inhabited by their own community, sometimes out of fear or hostility, leading to isolation from the rest of society. Prejudice can also escalate into hatred and violence against the community.
The experiences of Adivasis and Muslims, along with other groups like Dalits and women (discussed in Class VII), demonstrate that marginalisation is a **complex phenomenon**. It involves interconnected economic, social, and cultural factors and requires multifaceted strategies, legal measures, and safeguards to address it effectively. Protecting the rights guaranteed by the Constitution and implementing laws and policies to achieve these rights is crucial for preserving India's unique diversity and fulfilling the state's commitment to equality and justice for all citizens.
The Sachar Committee Report also aimed to dispel common myths about Muslims, such as the belief that they prefer religious schools (Madarsas). The report showed that only a small percentage (4%) of Muslim children attend Madarsas, while the vast majority attend government (66%) and private (30%) schools, indicating their integration into the general education system.
Conclusion
This chapter has explored the concept of marginalisation by examining the experiences of Adivasi and Muslim communities in India. Marginalisation means being pushed to the edges of society, experiencing disadvantage, prejudice, and powerlessness. Different communities face marginalisation for various reasons and in distinct ways. Other marginalised groups in India include Dalits.
Marginalisation often results in low social status and unequal access to essential resources like education. However, the lives of marginalised people are not static; they can and do change. Marginalisation is not a fixed state. Both Adivasis and Muslims, like other marginalised groups, have a history of **struggle and resistance** against the injustices they face.
Marginalised communities strive to **maintain their unique cultural identity** while simultaneously demanding equal access to rights, development opportunities, and resources available to the rest of society. The next chapter will further explore how different groups have actively challenged marginalisation and fought for their rights.
**Displaced:** Refers to people forced to move from their homes, often due to large development projects like dams or mining.
**Hierarchy:** A system where people or things are ranked in order of status or authority; those at the bottom have the least power, e.g., the caste system with Dalits at the lowest rung.
**Ghettoisation:** The process where a community is concentrated in a specific area, often due to social, cultural, or economic factors, sometimes driven by fear, leading to isolation from the broader society.
**Mainstream:** Refers to the dominant culture, customs, and practices of a society or the powerful group at its center.
**Militarised:** An area with a significant presence of armed forces.
**Malnourished:** Someone suffering from a lack of adequate nutrition.